Poverty and Deprivation ( UPSC Optionals)

EN

Introduction

Poverty

• “Poverty is a significant social issue”, as highlighted by thinkers like Sir John Sinclair and F.M. Eden. 
• It can be described as the relative absence of essential societal components, often discussed in an economic context. 
• At its core, poverty is the lack of vital resources necessary for survival and well-being.

Deprivation

• Deprivation reflects a lack of essential elements like adequate income, good health, or social participation, leading to varying levels of suffering.
• Brown and Madge (1982) described deprivation as undesirable circumstances, whether material, emotional, or social, marked by societal consensus.
• Deprivation reflects the inability to access the resources required to meet societal expectations of participation and standard living.
• Interconnection: Poverty is the cause, and deprivation is the outcome.
• Peter Townsend (1979) in ‘Poverty in the United Kingdom’ emphasized defining poverty through relative deprivation. He viewed that it can be objectively measured.
• Conceptual Spectrum: Deprivation exists on a continuum ranging from no deprivation to extreme deprivation (Gordon, 2002).

PYQs: Exclusion, Poverty, Deprivation

• Do you think that poverty, deprivation, and inequalities are the major challenges in the process of social transformation? What are your suggestions to address and resolve these problems? (09/60)
• क्या आपको लगता है कि गरीबी, वंचन और असमानताएं सामाजिक परिवर्तन की प्रक्रिया में प्रमुख चुनौतियां हैं? इन समस्याओं को दूर करने और हल करने के लिए आपके क्या सुझाव हैं? (09/60)

• Distinguish between people being socially excluded and people excluding themselves socially in societies. (10/15)
• सामाजिक रूप से बहिष्कृत लोगों और समाजों में सामाजिक रूप से खुद को बाहर करने वाले लोगों के बीच अंतर स्पष्ट करें। (10/15)

• 'Distinguish between people being socially excluded and people excluding themselves socially in societies. (150 words) (13/10)
• सामाजिक रूप से बहिष्कृत लोगों और समाजों में सामाजिक रूप से खुद को बाहर करने वाले लोगों के बीच अंतर स्पष्ट करें। (10/15)

• Discuss the relationship between poverty and social exclusion. (16/10)
• गरीबी और सामाजिक बहिष्करण के बीच संबंधों पर चर्चा करें। (16/10)

• Can we equate 'poverty' with 'poor living'? Elaborate your answer. (17/10)
• क्या हम 'गरीबी' की तुलना 'गरीब जीवन' से कर सकते हैं? अपने उत्तर का विस्तार से वर्णन कीजिए । (17/10)

• Explain the inter-linkages between poverty, deprivation, and inequality. (200 words) (13/15)
• गरीबी, वंचन और असमानता के बीच अंतर-संबंधों की व्याख्या करें। (200 शब्द) (13/15)

• Write short note with a sociological perspective: Feminization of poverty. (15/10)
• एक समाजशास्त्रीय परिप्रेक्ष्य के साथ संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी लिखिए : गरीबी का स्त्रीकरण। (15/10)

• Discuss the emerging forms of 'inequalities' and 'acute poverty' as major challenges of social transformation in India. (16/20)
• भारत में सामाजिक परिवर्तन की प्रमुख चुनौतियों के रूप में 'असमानताओं' और 'तीव्र गरीबी' के उभरते रूपों की चर्चा कीजिए। (16/20)

• How are Hierarchy and Exclusion the major impediments in the transformation of societies? Discuss. (2020/20)
• अधिक्रम और बहिष्करण समाज के परिवर्तन में प्रमुख बाधाएं कैसे हैं? चर्चा करें। (2020/20)

• Explain the implications of feminization of work in the developing societies. (2022/10)
• विकासशील समाजों के कार्यक्षेत्र में मारी की उपस्थिति में वृद्धि के आशय की व्याख्या कीजिए । (2022/10)

• How is poverty a form of social exclusion? Illustrate in this connection the different dimensions of poverty and social exclusion. UPSC 2023, 20 Marks
• गरीबी किस प्रकार से सामाजिक बहिष्कार का एक रूप है? इस सम्बन्ध में गरीबी और सामाजिक बहिष्कार के विभिन्न आयामों का वर्णन कीजिए। USPC 2023, 20 Marks

Dimensions of Poverty

1. Absolute vs. Relative Poverty

• Absolute Poverty: This refers to the condition where individuals lack fundamental necessities. E.g. food, water, and shelter.
• Relative Poverty: A state of deprivation in which individuals lack resources or possessions commonly held by the majority in their society.
• The debate continues as to whether ‘poverty arises due to societal divisions and hierarchies’ or if it is the vice versa.

2. Multi-Dimensional Poverty

Poverty encompasses more than economic deprivation. Social dimensions include limited access to:

• Information
• Education
• Healthcare (both physical and mental)
• Four capitals: Social capital, cultural capital, political capital, and human capital.
• Absence of intangible assets. E.g. Access to credit

Poverty: Thinkers Perspectives 

Poverty and Culture (Cultural Poverty): (Max Weber)

• A condition where poverty persists due to entrenched behaviors, attitudes, and values within a community. 
• Cultural Influence on Economic Success: Weber argued that cultural values can significantly impact economic outcomes. (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism)

Counterpoint - The Great Smoky Mountains Study:

• A ten-year longitudinal study.
• Findings suggest that changes in economic opportunities, rather than shifts in cultural values, largely explain transitions in and out of poverty.

Oscar Lewis (Culture of Poverty)

Poverty is not just a lack of resources but also a ‘self-sustaining value system that perpetuates poverty’.

This cycle arises due to:

• A distinctive worldview.
• Limited aspirations.
• The character shaped in children raised in poverty.

Merton (Relational Nature of Poverty)

• Merton's Reference Group Theory explores how poverty is relative and relational in modern societies.
• Example: His studies on American soldiers.

Karl Marx

• Pauperization: Describes the growing gap between the exchange value of labor (wages) and its use value (actual worth).
• Lumpenproletariat: Refers to the unorganized, politically disengaged lower classes, disinterested in revolutionary change.

Peter Townsend (Subjective Poverty)

• Key Idea: Relative Deprivation
  Peter Townsend emphasized that poverty must be understood in relative terms, based on the living standards of a particular society. 
• Subjective poverty arises when individuals perceive themselves as deprived compared to societal norms.
• Even if their income meets basic needs, they may feel poor relative to others.

Voluntary Poverty

• People choose poverty as a necessary or desirable condition to achieve certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states.
• E.g. In Buddhism (for monks) and Jainism, voluntary poverty is integral to the path of renunciation.

Mahatma Gandhi:

• Gandhi viewed voluntary poverty as a means to achieve spiritual purity and align with truth (Satya) and non-violence (Ahimsa).
• It is a way to develop empathy for the poor and promote equality, rejecting the inequalities perpetuated by capitalism.

Thomas Aquinas (Roman Catholic Thinker):

• Voluntary poverty is a pathway to spiritual growth and an essential aspect of Christian virtue.
• Aquinas categorized poverty into material poverty and spiritual poverty of the heart. While material poverty was not inherently virtuous, the voluntary renunciation of wealth was seen as a moral and spiritual exercise.

Pope Benedict XVI distinguished between:

• "Poverty chosen": The spiritual poverty encouraged by Jesus, emphasizing humility and detachment from materialism.
• "Poverty to be fought": Unjust and imposed poverty caused by economic inequality.
• This self-invited poverty is distinct from poverty resulting from structural or economic imbalances.

Feminist Perspective

1. Diane Pearce

• Women constitute a disproportionately large share of the global poor. 
• This disparity arises not merely from insufficient income but from 
  
  • A lack of capabilities and skills
  • The persistence of gender biases.

2. Glass Ceiling Effect

• Barriers that prevent women from advancing in professional and social hierarchies.

3.  Poverty and Gender Inequality

• Feminist thinkers highlight how structural and cultural biases disproportionately affect women, leading to their higher vulnerability to poverty.
• Intersectionality: Overlapping factors like gender, class, and race intersect to deepen deprivation for marginalized groups.
• Pink Colorisation: The association of certain professions with women, often undervaluing their contributions. E.g. receiptionists. 

Functional Perspective

1. Poverty as Necessary for Social Stability

• Views inequality as a necessary element of society’s functioning.
• Poverty is it a social necessity. It provides a labor pool for lower-status jobs and motivates individuals to strive for better positions.

2. Role Allocation

• It ensures that less desirable but necessary jobs are filled by those who lack the skills.

Conflict Perspective

• Poverty as a Result of Exploitation: Conflict theorists, inspired by Karl Marx, view poverty as a consequence of systemic inequality and class exploitation, where the bourgeoisie oppress the proletariat.
• Power and Wealth Concentration: The accumulation of wealth by a few leads to the deprivation of the masses, perpetuating cycles of poverty.
• Key aspects of poverty:
  
  • Lack of Opportunities: Limited access to resources needed for upward mobility.
  • Lack of Mobility: Even in societies that are perceived as open, poverty restricts movement between social classes.

Deprivation: Thinkers Perspectives

Townsend (1987)

• Deprivation is a state of disadvantage relative to the community or society an individual or group belongs to.
• It includes lacking necessities such as diet, clothing, housing, social conditions, and educational opportunities customary in society.

Key Features of Deprivation:

1. Multi-dimensional Nature:

• Deprivation manifests in various forms—lack of basic needs, poor living conditions, or limited social participation.
• Multiple deprivation occurs when individuals face several forms of deprivation simultaneously.

2. Material and Social Deprivation:

• Material: Inadequate resources like food, clothing, or shelter.
• Social: Inability to engage in community activities or relationships.

3. Relative Concept:

• Deprivation is context-dependent, varying across societies and time, based on socially accepted norms.

4. Focus on Individuals, Not Areas:

• Deprivation impacts people directly, irrespective of the deprivation level of their residential area.

Breadline Britain and Poverty and Social Exclusion (1999) 

• It refined Townsend's work by identifying necessities through societal consensus (items required by at least 50% of the population).

Karl Marx: Deprivation as a Result of Class Inequality

• Alienation
  
  • Marx argued that deprivation stems from the alienation of workers in a capitalist system.
  • Workers are separated from the products of their labor, leading to economic and psychological deprivation.
• Exploitation of the Proletariat
  
  • The bourgeoisie exploits the working class, creating wealth disparities.
  • This economic exploitation deepens deprivation by limiting access to resources for the proletariat.

Emile Durkheim: Deprivation Through Social Disintegration

• Anomie and Social Deprivation
  
  • Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie, a state of normlessness that arises during rapid societal changes.
  • Individuals feel disconnected from societal norms, leading to social and emotional deprivation.
• Role of Social Solidarity
  
  • Lack of integration into collective social life results in deprivation.
  • Weak community bonds reduce access to support systems essential for well-being.

Max Weber: Deprivation Linked to Status and Power

• Social Stratification
  
  • Weber emphasized that deprivation arises from unequal distribution of power, prestige, and wealth.
  • People in lower status groups experience both material and symbolic deprivation.
• Cultural and Lifestyle Disadvantages
  
  • Deprivation is not just economic but also cultural.
  • Groups may lack the means to achieve socially valued lifestyles, reinforcing inequality.

Feminisation of Poverty (Diane Pearce)

Women as the Majority of the Poor

• Women make up a disproportionate percentage of the global poor.
• Poverty is not just about lack of income but stems from deprivation of capabilities and gender biases.

Femonomics (Rita Wolfsohn)

• "Femonomics" is a term coined by Reeta Wolfsohn to describe the intersection of gender and financial issues. 
• It highlights how women, due to various socio-economic and cultural factors, face unique financial challenges. 
• These challenges include earning less than men, managing both financial and caregiving responsibilities, experiencing higher healthcare costs, and dealing with financial illiteracy and systemic gender biases. 

"Femonomics 2.0" expands the concept of "Femonomics" to include seven key components:

1. Earning less: Women, on average, earn less than men, leading to financial disparity.
2. Responsibility for Children: Women shoulder both fiscal and physical responsibilities for raising children, adding to financial burdens.
3. Unique healthcare problems/access challenges: Women face specific healthcare issues, including higher costs and barriers to access.
4. Pink Tax: Paying more for products and services: Women frequently encounter higher prices for the same goods and services compared to men, a phenomenon known as the "pink tax."
5. Disproportionate impact of financial illiteracy: Women, especially those from marginalized backgrounds, are more likely to suffer from financial illiteracy, impacting their ability to manage money.
6. Longer life expectancy: Women tend to live longer than men, which means they need more resources to sustain themselves throughout their lives.
7. Socialisation Challenge: Societal expectations and gender roles continue to challenge women’s access to resources and economic independence. It creates barriers to wealth-building and financial autonomy

Reasons for Feminisation of Poverty

• Labour Market Inequalities: Women face unequal wages, job opportunities, and working conditions.
• Lack of Income and Income Gap: Women often earn less than men, contributing to a wider income gap.
• Male Migration: Male migration leaves women in single-parent households, leading to financial and emotional challenges.
• Inequality in Public Services: Women face inequality in access to public services like healthcare, education, and basic amenities.
• Lack of Education and Skills: Limited access to education and skills development reduces women’s earning potential.
• Limited Healthcare Access: Women’s health issues are often neglected, and they face higher healthcare costs.
• Limited Political Power: Women’s limited involvement in political decision-making exacerbates poverty.
• Rising Divorce Rates and Single Parenthood (Anthony Giddens): Higher divorce rates and single parenthood increase women’s economic struggles.
• Increasing Legal and Cultural Constraints: Legal and societal barriers limit women’s opportunities and rights in public life, contributing to their marginalization.
• Lack of Money Management Skills: Lack of education often translates to limited financial management skills, worsening poverty.
• Increased Widowhood: Women live longer than men, leading to an increased number of widows facing economic difficulties.
• Impact of Environmental Issues: Environmental degradation, such as droughts, disempowers women, especially in rural areas where they depend on agriculture.
• Eco-Feminisation: Women’s involvement in eco-feminist movements like the Chipko Movement and Smokeless Chulha reflect their role in environmental sustainability.

Poverty vs. Deprivation

Way Forward for Poverty and Deprivation

Focus on Basic Needs

• Food: Ensuring access to affordable and nutritious food for all is critical in alleviating poverty.
• Employment: Providing job opportunities and promoting economic growth can lift people out of poverty.
• Education: Access to quality education enables individuals to secure better-paying jobs and improve their quality of life.

Removing Constraints on Government Services

• Political Corruption: Addressing corruption within governments helps ensure resources are used efficiently to fight poverty.
• Tax Havens: Preventing the use of tax havens helps retain crucial funds for development.
• Transfer Mispricing: Tackling the issue of companies shifting profits to avoid taxes improves revenue for government services.
• Developing Countries' Debt: Reducing the debt burden of developing countries can free up resources for public services.
• Conditionality: Reforming the conditions imposed by international financial institutions can improve policy outcomes for poverty reduction.

Reversing Brain Drain

• Encouraging skilled individuals to remain or return to their home countries can help drive local development and reduce poverty.

Controlling Overpopulation

• Managing population growth ensures resources are not overburdened and can support sustainable development.

Guaranteed Minimum Income, Social Security, and Welfare

• Providing basic financial support, social security, and welfare programs ensures that the most vulnerable populations can meet their needs.

The Business of Poverty

• CK Prahalad's Concept: Prahalad's book Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid introduced the idea that businesses can profit by serving the world's poorest four billion people, offering products and services designed to meet their needs.